Japan was traditionally ruled by the emperor who was considered semi-divine and was revered by all—at least in theory. In reality, the emperor was more like an honored figurehead with little real power. Japan was divided into a patchwork of domains ruled by the daimyō. These daimyō were feudal lords. While they paid lip service to the emperor, they struggled among themselves for power. Each of these lords sought to defend and hold their own lands.
The development of a professional warrior class, known as samurai, in medieval Japan began in 792 when the traditional system of conscripting peasant foot soldiers was abolished. This new military was privatized with the royal court, provincial leaders, and great monasteries raising militias as needed. The samurai warrior class gradually evolved in the provinces. The provincial elites hired armed retainers for peacekeeping responsibilities. These armed retainers became the first samurai. The word “samurai” is derived from “saburau” which means “to serve the nobility.”
Initially, the first warriors who were to become samurai were recruited from the provincial gentry as they had to provide their own horses and equipment. It was only this class which had the needed resources. Gradually, the samurai emerged as a distinct warrior class.
As the Way of the Warrior (bushidō) developed, the samurai were required to have single-minded loyalty to their lords. This included sacrificing their own lives when necessary. On the death of the lord, the samurai would practice junshi (ritual suicide).
Under the rule of the Ashikaga shoguns (1333 to 1573), the samurai tended to be patrons of Zen Buddhism. In 1467 bickering factions within the shogunate plunged Japan into civil war. During the Azuchi-Momoyama period (1568 to 1603), the samurai became the governing elite. During this period, generally described as “brief and violent,” some 250 regional warlords developed a way of life anchored in the role of the feudal warrior. The warrior’s code stressed seven basic virtues: courage, respect, benevolence, honor, rectitude, honesty, and loyalty.
In 1603, the emperor proclaimed Tokugawa Ieyasu (1524-1616) as shogun and he became the supreme military leader of Japan. Tokugawa Ieyasu was one of the Five Great Elders.
The Tokugawa shogunate (1615 to 1868) ruled with an iron hand and during this time the samurai became defined as a rigidly hereditary class. Gregory Irvine, in his chapter on Japanese Arms and Armor in The Art of Armor, writes:
“Under the Tokugawa shogunate, Japan was effectively at peace. After centuries of warfare, members of the ruling samurai class found themselves in the anomalous position of being warriors with no more battles to fight.”
A stratified society with four main social classes was established following Confucian concepts. The top layer of the society was composed of the imperial court, priests of the prominent Buddhist monasteries and Shinto shrines, and the samurai. Each of the social classes was hereditary and, in theory, marriage outside of one’s class was not allowed.
In this hierarchical class system, the samurai were given the privilege of a family name and the right to wear two swords. The samurai were also permitted to kill any commoners whom they felt had insulted them.
The samurai were at the top of the social hierarchy and devoted themselves equally to the cultivation of civil and martial arts. The Laws of Military Houses (Buke shohatto) laid down the rules for the behavior of the military class in 1615. Under these rules, the samurai were to study both the military arts and civil learning. They were to set an example for all other classes with the demeanor of their daily lives.
Yamago Sokō (1622-1685) wrote Bukyō Shōgaku (Primary Learning in the Warrior Creed) and Shidō (the way of the warrior). While the warrior’s code emerged from the chaos of battle, it was intended to help the samurai prosper in a world of peace. Sokō, citing Confucian principles, stressed the need to study history, philosophy, and art. According to Eric Meulien in his chapter of Bushidō in The Art of Armor:
"Sokō explained that warriors were to use their leisure time to elevate themselves to the level of spiritual superiority that justified the samurai’s position as the most powerful class in Japan.”
The authority of the samurai was ended in 1876 with the Haitōrei Edict which prohibited them from carrying swords, once the symbols of their authority. While the samurai are no longer a Japanese political power, the samurai heritage continues to be seen in movies, art, literature, and the traditional Japanese tea ceremony.
The tea ceremony has its roots in Zen Buddhism and Daoism. It is structured around the five elements—wood, fire, water, metal, and earth—which are essential for balance. Eric Meulien writes:
“To master the art of Japanese tea was to possess patience, discipline, and devotion—deep-seated, basic samurai qualities.”
The samurai in art displayed at the Portland Art Museum.