Two hundred years ago, in 1820, the United States was just beginning to embark on its expansionist policy known as Manifest Destiny. Under this policy, many non-Indian Americans felt that it was the divine destiny of the United States to expand and to spread American culture, language, and the Christian religion across the continent.
In his book The Bitter Waters of Medicine Creek: A Tragic Clash Between White and Native America, Richard Kluger describes Manifest Destiny this way:
“God had assigned the American people, robust and pure of heart, to spread the gospel of liberty and democracy around the earth—well, certainly across all of North America—and prosperity and happiness would follow.”
Briefly described below are some of the American Indian events from two hundred years ago.
Prehistory
An important element in the foundational myth of the United States is that North America had been a wilderness inhabited by wild animals and wild Indians. It was important for the Euro-Americans of the nineteenth century to view Indians as savage, primitive hunters and gatherers, incapable of “developing” the land and therefore justifying the non-Indian theft of this land.
According to the myth, these “wild” Indians were incapable of building cities, great temples, and pyramids. The great earthworks, pyramids, and burial mounds, which are found along the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers created problems for the Americans. While it seems obvious that Indians would have built these great works, this would have implied a level of Indian civilization which many Euro-Americans could not accept. In an article in American Archaeology, Kenneth Feder puts it this way:
“Many Americans of European descent refused to believe that America’s aboriginal inhabitants possessed such capabilities. Consequently, it was thought that some other group was responsible.”
In order to sustain the American foundational myth, there must have been an earlier, more advanced civilization in North America which had constructed the great ruins. Ignoring the accounts of French and Spanish explorers, the Americans promoted the idea that these structures must have been built by Vikings, Egyptians, Phoenicians, Chinese, or Celts, or some other “vanished” people.
In 1820, the American Antiquarian Society published Caleb Atwater’s systematic investigation of the earthwork mounds in the Ohio and Mississippi River valleys. He saw these earthworks as evidence of an occupation of a sedentary, law-abiding people who were later replaced by more recent immigrants from Asia who became the present-day American Indians. In his book Prehistory of the Americas, Stuart Fiedel writes:
“Atwater provided accurate descriptions of many sites, but he also lapsed into groundless speculation, suggesting that ‘Hindoos’ had built the mounds.”
Tribal Governments
In response to pressures from the United States, a number of Indian nations began to adopt more formal governmental structures as a way of dealing with American demands.
In the southeast, the Cherokee reorganized their government by dividing the nation into eight districts and organizing a new standing legislative body. The legislature, with a 13-member upper house and a 32-member lower house, was to meet each October in Newtown, the newly created Cherokee capital. In this reorganization, the villages were no longer recognized as the primary political unit.
In Mississippi, the Chickasaw adopted a code of written laws. According to Blue Clark, in an article in the Chronicles of Oklahoma:
“The Chickasaws hoped that by accommodating themselves to white ways, they could remain in their ancestral homeland.”
Ishtehotopa became the new principal chief of the Chickasaw. He was the nephew of the old chief Chinibee.
Christianity
In Arkansas, the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions established a mission among the Western Cherokee.
In Kansas, the United Foreign Mission Society established Union Mission on the Neosho River to “civilize” the Osage.
In Mississippi, a group of 23 missionaries began to establish a series of mission stations among the Choctaw.
In western Montana, a group of about two dozen Christian Iroquois under the leadership of Old Ignace La Mousse came to live among the Flathead. They preached their version of Christianity to the Flathead and taught them a number of Christian prayers and hymns.
American Indian Religions
While Christian missionaries and many historians have perpetuated the lie that American Indians did not have any religion, two centuries ago American Indian religions continued and new American Indian religious movements, some in response to pressure from the Christian missionaries, were developing.
In New York, Seneca leader Cornplanter had a vision in which the Great Spirit told him to have nothing further to do with the Americans or with war. In response, he burned all of his old trophies of war.
In Illinois, about 70 Potawatomi followers of the Kickapoo prophet Kanacuk moved to his village in order to be closer to him.
Indian Wars
In Montana, the Cheyenne attacked the Crow. The Cheyenne contrary, Old Ice, counted more than 100 coup with his thunder bow.
On the Plains, a party of 93 Pawnee warriors, on foot and poorly armed, were attacked by a well-armed Arapaho war party. Most of the principal Pawnee warriors were killed.
In Iowa, the Sauk attacked and burned an Otoe-Missouria-Iowa village. Following this, the Iowa returned to their own village.
Pottery
In New Mexico, potters at Santa Ana Pueblo began making a style of pottery known as Santa Ana Polychrome. The most striking feature of the new pottery is a design band just below the rim of the jars.
Citizenship
Spain granted citizenship to the Indians of Mexico. This included what would later become Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado, Nevada, and California.
New State
Maine became a state and assumed jurisdiction over the Indian reservations within its boundaries. This included the obligation to provide the Penobscot with annual payments.
Fur Trade
In Idaho, fur trader Donald MacKenzie met in council with the Boise Shoshone under the leadership of Big Jim (Peiem). The Shoshone agreed to allow MacKenzie’s party to trap for furs in their territory.
Villages
In South Carolina, the Catawba abandoned their village of New Town which had been established in 1790.
In Nebraska, the Omaha abandoned Big Village because of hostility from the Sauk. They established a new earthlodge village at the Elkhorn River.
Population
In Nebraska, it is estimated that the Pawnee numbered 6,000 people, including 2,000 warriors. The tribe had 6-8,000 horses.
Indians 101
Twice each week Indians 101 explores various American Indian topics. More nineteenth century histories from this series:
Indians 101: Some 1818 Treaties
Indians 101: Some Indian Events of 1817
Indians 101: Federal Indian Policy in 1817
Indians 101: Federal Indian Policy in 1818
Indians 101: The Cherokee in 1817
Indians 101: The Fur Trade in 1816
Indians 101: Indian Removal 200 Years Ago (1818)
Indians 101: California Missions 200 Years Ago, 1819