By 1772, there were three European nations interacting with Indian nations in North America: England, France, and Spain. In general, these European nations wanted Indian lands, Indian furs, Indian labor (both as servants/peasants and slaves), Indian allies in their wars against other Indian and European nations, and Indian souls (that is, the conversion of Indians to Christianity).
Europeans, strongly believing that their religion was the only religion, were continuing in their efforts to convert Indians. Both Protestant and Catholic missionaries sought to bring about the total conversion of the Indians, which included the complete destruction of their cultures. Becoming Christian involved more than ceremonies worshipping a European god, but also required adopting European customs regarding such things as dress, housing, farming, and treatment of women.
The Spanish Mission Era in California began in 1769 and lasted until 1834. The Franciscan missionaries founded 21 missions in California, or, more precisely, Alta California. These missions sought to capture souls for Christ by converting the Indians to Catholicism and to solidify Spain’s imperial control over the region. With one exception, all the missions were built on the sites of Native American villages.
Robert Jackson and Edward Castillo, in their book Indians, Franciscans, and Spanish Colonization: The Impact of the Mission System on California Indians, report:
“The missionaries, assisted by soldiers, congregated Indians into communities organized along the lines of those in the core areas of Spanish America, where Indian converts were to be indoctrinated in Catholicism and taught European-style agriculture, leatherworking, textile production, and other skills deemed useful by the Spaniards.”
By using Indian labor to produce surplus grain supplies for the Spanish military garrisons, the Franciscan missionaries were able to view Indians as both potential converts and labor.
Briefly described below are some events of 1772.
Fur and Hide Trade
While the fur trade brought Indians and Europeans into closer contact and into business relationships, it also carried with it the seeds for the destruction of the traditional Indian economies. One of the major impacts on American Indian cultures at this time was their increasing use of European manufactured goods obtained through trade. In the southeast, for example, Indians had traditionally hunted only to supplement their agricultural efforts. By 1772, however, hunting had grown to be a vital element of Indian lives and the means by which they could obtain European goods. Items such as guns, housewares (iron pots, brass and tin kettles, pans, canisters), tools, blankets, textiles, and rum were frequently considered necessities rather than luxuries. This over-hunting affected not only the economies of the tribes, but also had a negative impact on their ecology.
Prior to the European invasion, Indians had viewed themselves and the animals as equals. With the hunting for the fur trade, a new world view began to emerge: Indian men began to see the world in a hierarchical fashion in which they had dominion over the animals. In addition, this hierarchical view placed men at the top of the human hierarchy and upset the traditional balance between men and women.
Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC)
Originally chartered by the English Crown in 1670, the Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) was given all the rights and powers of a sovereign nation. A century later, HBC was the largest fur trading company in North America.
In 1672, HBC sent out trader Mathew Cocking to make contact with the Indian nations in Saskatchewan and Alberta and to open up trade with them. Cocking made contact with the Gros Ventre whom he calls Powestic-Athineuwuck or Waterfall Indians. He reported that the Gros Ventre were raising small plots of tobacco, that they were cooking in earthen vessels which they made, and that the warriors wore armor in the form of a quilted, sleeveless moosehide jacket six folds thick
While in Saskatchewan, he made contact with a group of Cree and Assiniboine hunters who were on their way to impound buffalo and to trap wolves. He also described four other Indian nations: Blood (Mithco-athinuwuck or Bloody Indians), Blackfoot (Koskitow-Wathesitock or Blackfooted Indians), Piegan (Pegonow or Muddy-water Indians), and Sarcee (Sassewuck or Woody Country Indians).
English Colonies
Rulings by the British Crown in 1772 indicated that American Indian nations retained title to their lands.
In Alabama, Choctaw leader Captain Ouma pleaded with the English colonists to prevent the importation of rum. He attributed the disorder and quarreling between his people and the English to the rum which poured into his nation.
The Cherokees signed a treaty with Virginia in which they gave up 10,917 square miles of land in Virginia, West Virginia, and eastern Kentucky.
In Alabama, Chickasaw chief Paya Mattaha complained about the presence of English hunters and horse thieves in his country. He also reported that the English traders were cheating his people by using shorter measures and phony scales.
French Colonies
In Arkansas, the French arrested a trader for selling liquor to the Quapaw. The Indians were enraged by this action and threatened to raze the Post. Three Quapaw villages sent the French Captain a dead horse and demanded a barrel of whiskey for it.
Spanish Colonies
In California, the Franciscan mission San Luis Obispo was established in Chumash territory.
In Texas, three Comanche women and one girl approached the Spanish at Béxar under a white flag. The Spanish, hoping to win the favor of the Comanche chief Evea (also called Pubea), sent two of the women home with presents and kept the other two as hostages. Two months later, the two Comanche women returned with six of their relatives. They were reunited with the hostages and given presents. They also managed to make off with 400 pack animals from the Spanish horse herd. The Spanish gave chase and managed to recapture about half of the animals and several of the Comanche women.
In Missouri, a group of Little Osage and Missouri warriors broke into Fort San Carlos and stole munitions and supplies. They then entered St. Louis, terrorized the town, and planted the British flag. The Indians were captured and reprimanded for their behavior. The Indians apologized and the Spanish did not punish them.
Indian Nations
In Arkansas, the Quapaws sent out a war party against a band of Osage warriors who had taken several Quapaw horses. The Quapaw ambushed the Osages, killed one Osage warrior, and recaptured the horses.
In New Mexico, the Gila Apache formed an alliance with some Navajo bands which included joint participation in raiding.
In New Mexico, the Apache raided the Pueblo of Zuni, killing six people.
Indians 101
Twice each week—on Tuesdays and Thursdays—this series presents American Indian topics. More eighteenth-century histories from this series—
Indians 101: American Indians 250 years ago, 1771
Indians 101: Indian nations 250 years ago, 1770
Indians 201: The Royal Proclamation of 1763
Indians 201: Pontiac's War
Indians 101: The eighteenth-century fur and hide trade
Indians 101: Indian Resistance to the California Missions
Indians 101: Little Turtle's War
Indians 101: Russians and Native Americans in the 18th century