By 1922 it was obvious to most people—politicians, philosophers, academics, philanthropists—that American Indians were not going to simply disappear. At the same time, the structural racism built into American society and American government would not allow them to be fully assimilated into the greater American culture. Overall, American Indians had the lowest incomes, the poorest healthcare, and the lowest levels of education in the United States. A number of groups, both Native American groups and non-Indians groups, were dealing with aspects of the so-called “Indian Issue.” Briefly described below are a few of the American Indian events of a century ago.
Indian Writer
Cherokee satirist Will Rogers (1879-1935) began writing a syndicated column for the New York Times. His humor targeted big business and government. In her biographical sketch of Will Rogers in Notable Native Americans, Doris Morris Maxfield reports:
“Through the years, the column evolved from staccato to longer anecdotes and fewer punchy gags, but it always conveyed his tone of voice and personality.”
She also reports:
“He is said to have been the most widely read—with an estimated 20 million readers—and frequently quoted newspaper columnist of his time.”
Newsletter
Yavapai physician Dr. Carlos Montezuma (1867-1923) published his last issue of Wassaja. He had launched Wassaja as a monthly journal in 1916 and by 1922, sick with tuberculosis, he was no longer able to work.
Society of the First Sons and Daughters of America
“Princess” Atalie Unkalunt, a Cherokee soprano, formed the Society of the First Sons and Daughters of America which was open to Indians who could prove their tribal affiliation. Non-Indians were admitted as “associate” members.
American Indian Association
The American Indian Association was formed. While it was largely a fraternal organization it did advocate the establishment of a Court of Claims for Indians.
General Federation of Women’s Clubs
Stella M. Attwood, the spokesperson for the General Federation of Women’s Clubs, writing in The Survey Graphic, reported:
“The General Federation of Women’s Clubs has taken up this problem of the Indian and will not lay down the task. The aim of the federation is to work out a simple, basic policy, aimed primarily at the improvement of the Indians’ economic condition.”
Cahokia Mounds
In Illinois, archaeologist Warren K. Moorehead began to lobby to preserve the Cahokia Mounds as a state park. Cahokia had been a large American Indian city which had flourished about 1000 CE ,when it was larger than the European cities of London and Berlin. Cahokia is characterized by numerous large earthen pyramids, generally described as mounds. Monks Mound, the central earthen pyramid in Cahokia, had been erected in 14 stages over a period of about 300 years: from 900 to 1200. It stands as tall as a ten-story building. The top of the flat pyramid held a royal residence that was more than 100 feet long.
Death Valley
In California, Albert Johnson began construction of his castle in Death Valley. Indians—primarily Timbisha—provided the labor. They were paid $3.50 per day.
Land Rights
The Everett Commission, established by the New York State Legislature to investigate the Indian situation in the state, reported that Indians in New York still had title to six million acres of State land. The report was not accepted by the Legislature.
Santa Fe Railroad
A national strike crippled the operations of the Santa Fe Railroad. In response, a number of Lagunas traveled from their pueblo in New Mexico to the railroad terminal in Richmond, California to bolster the depleted workforce. In his chapter in Native Americans and Wage Labor: Ethnohistorical Perspectives, Kurt Peters reports:
“During the workers’ lengthy sojourn a set of boxcars, completely enclosed by the railroad yards, constituted their housing. Within this enclave they replicated traditional cultural practices, forming a microcosmic extension of their distant pueblo.”
Criminal Jurisdiction
In South Dakota, a member of the Rosebud Sioux tribe was charged in federal court with murder. In United States v Black Spotted Horse, the defendant’s attorney argued that the alleged crime had taken place on fee-patented land and therefore the crime was not subject to federal jurisdiction. The court, however, rejected this argument insisting that federal jurisdiction remains on any reservation without regard to the status of the land.
Water Rights
The Circuit Court in Skeem versus United States held that the Winters Doctrine was not limited to use on those lands currently under cultivation on Indian reservations but can be expanded to include all the tribe’s lands. The Winters Doctrine, established by the Supreme Court in 1908 (Winters vs US) states that the date of the establishment of a reservation is considered the date of “first use” of water for Indians. According to the court, all water claims after the establishment of the reservation are subordinate or junior to those of the Indians. Furthermore, this reserved water right is not liable to extinction through non-use.
Indians 101
Twice each week—on Tuesdays and Thursdays—this series presents American Indian topics. In many American histories, American Indians are not present in the twentieth century. Some twentieth centuries histories from this series are shown below:
Indians 201: The Meriam Report
Indians 101: The Hoover Commission
Indians 101: The Termination Era
Indians 101: The Hiawatha Asylum for Insane Indians
Indians 101: South Dakota versus Indians, 1961-1963
Indians 101: Art Museums Discover Indian Art
Indians 101: The National Congress of American Indians
Indians 101: Hopi Indians as tourist attractions in the early 20th century