During most of the nineteenth century, the policy of the United States was to settle all American Indians on reservations where they would be out of the way of the American settlers who wanted to claim their lands. By the end of the nineteenth century, American greed was demanding that the reservations be broken up so that the “unused” land could be given to non-Indians. This policy continued through most of the twentieth century.
Many Americans were offended by the tribal practice of holding lands in common, a practice labeled “communistic” during the twentieth century. It was strongly felt that land had to be privately owned and that ownership should be inherited patrilineally (that is, from father to son). Government policies attempted to enforce the ideals of private ownership, inheritance from the father, and the use of the father’s surname as a way of destroying Native cultures.
In the governmental structure of the United States, Indian affairs were administered through the Department of the Interior. The Secretary of the Interior, a politically appointed position, was the highest-ranking government official responsible for Indian affairs. The actual running of the Indian Office (later known as the Bureau of Indian Affairs) was the responsibility of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, another politically appointed position. In 1923, Charles Henry Burke, a former Congressman from South Dakota who had been on the House Committee on Indian Affairs, held that position.
It should be noted that in 1923, American Indians did not have birthright citizenship in the U.S,: they could only become citizens if certain conditions, such as serving in the military during World War I, were met. In general, Indians living on reservations were unable to vote and were considered “under guardianship,” meaning that they were unable to make certain decisions for themselves.
Briefly described below are some of the reservation events of 100 years ago, in 1923.
Hopi
The name of the Moqui Agency, with headquarters in Keams Canyon, Arizona, was changed to the Hopi Agency by the U.S. Government.
Ute
In Colorado, the Consolidated Ute Agency was formed to replace both the Ute Mountain Ute and Southern Ute agencies. The new headquarters for this Indian agency are in Ignacio.
Cherokee
In creating the state of Oklahoma, the United States simply dissolved all the tribal governments in the territory. There were, however, times when tribal officials needed to sign certain legal document. The United States would then simply appoint someone, usually a tribal member, to become “Chief for a Day,” creating the legal fiction that they could sign documents on behalf of the entire tribe. In 1923, the government appointed Ed M. Frye as Cherokee Principal Chief for a day in order to sign some documents.
Cahuilla
In California, Cahuilla land is allotted, and each Cahuilla family is limited to 160 acres. According to anthropologists Wendell Oswalt and Sharlotte Neely, in their book This Land Was Theirs: A Study of Native Americans:
“Allotments were made irrespective of whether or not the band members agreed with the idea of dividing land into individual parcels. Furthermore, the allotments were not of comparable value.”
San Carlos Apache
In Arizona, the new Indian agent for the San Carlos Apache proposed that the Indian cattle industry use the entire reservation. He wanted to utilize the basic unit of Apache social organization—the extended family—in organizing this industry. Land was assigned to one or more related families. According to William Brophy and Sophie Aberle, in their book The Indian: America’s Unfinished Business. Report of the Commission on the Rights, Liberties, and Responsibilities of the American Indian:
“The cattle on the newly assigned rangeland, although owned by an individual of a kin group, belonged in practice to all its members. This co-operative ownership simulated the old pattern of sharing.”
Blackfeet
In Montana, the Blackfeet Tribal Business Council (BTBC) formed an oil committee to investigate the performance of its four oil lessees. In addition, the committee was to lobby for better enforcement of its lease provisions. The committee was formed in part as a response to lax enforcement of oil lease provisions by the Department of the Interior.
Arapaho
In Wyoming, the Arapaho Business Council demanded that the Indian Office provide them with an accounting of money obtained from the sale of their land and from their oil leases. The Indian Office ignored the request.
Nez Perce
In Idaho, the superintendent for the Nez Perce reservation reported that tribal members had only 100,000 acres of allotted land while non-Indians held 650,000 acres. Because of fragmentation of allotments through heirship, there were only about a dozen Nez Perce under 27 who had a tract of 80 acres or more. In an article in Idaho Yesterdays, historian Elizabeth James writes:
“Under existing conditions, the heirs could not even begin their own farms if they wanted to because all the productive land was gone.”
The superintendent recommended selling the land and then distributing the profit.
Zuni
In New Mexico, archaeologist Frederick W. Hodge obtained permission from the progressive government of Zuni to film the sacred Shalako ceremony. This was opposed by the conservative faction in the Pueblo and a small riot broke out to block the filming.
In the American west, water rights are based on time: according to a Supreme Court decision--which has generally been ignored by both state and federal governments--American Indian water rights are superior to those established later in time. In 1923, the State of New Mexico issued a formal water right to the Ramah Irrigation Company for the water from the Pescado tributary of the Zuni River. While the Zunis had used this water for irrigation for thousands of years and had notified the State Engineer’s Office that they claimed all the water flowing through the Zuni River and its tributaries, this protest was ignored.
More 20th century American Indian histories
Many American histories—textbooks, popular history books, and classes—tend to relegate Indians to the past and, consequently, 20th-century Indian events are ignored. Some 20th century American Indian histories:
Indians 101: Suppressing Indian religions in Montana, 1900-1934
Indians 101: The Grand Coulee Dam and the Colville Indians
Indians 101: Hopi Indians as tourist attractions in the early 20th century
Indians 101: World War II Veterans Come Home
Indians 101: American Indians and the Korean War
Indians 101: Boulder Dam and the Navajo Reservation
Indians 101: The Hoover Commission
Indians 201: The Meriam Report